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                  During the last two decades, emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases threaten global public health. The important point in relation to all infectious diseases is that bacteria, due to their fast and effective ability to adapt to environmental changes, create many mechanisms to escape the effects of drugs, and based on this, drug-resistant bacteria can drugs are pumped out by efflux pumps and produce enzymes dedicated to inactivating the active principles. Over the years, resistance to antimicrobial drugs has become increasingly widespread, and this has resulted in a significant threat to public health. The long list of drug-resistant bacteria includes sulfonamide-resistant, penicillin-resistant, methicillin-resistant, and vancomycin-resistant staphylococcus aureus, macrolide-resistant streptococcus pyogenes, penicillin-resistant streptococcus pneumoniae, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, penicillin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae (PPNG),  Enterobacter cloacaeEscherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniaeShigella flexneriSalmonella entericaAcinetobacter baumanniiPseudomonas aeruginosaVibrio cholerae, and beta-lactamase-expressing Haemophilus influenzae . 40–60% of strains of S. aureus found in hospitals in the United States and United Kingdom are resistant to methicillin (MRSA), and most of these strains are also resistant to multiple antibiotics. In addition, most antibiotics were developed decades ago, so they are no longer targeted as antibacterial agents to the correct binding site in bacteria because bacteria have evolved their genome as a protective tool. Microbial resistance to common antibiotics has led to increased efforts to discover and synthesize microbial agents to replace current drugs.As nanomedicine continually advances, innovative approaches focused on improving local antimicrobial drug delivery are emerging. Nanoparticles can also remain inactive, but release antibiotics for activity in response to external cues at the infection sites. By modulating drug-pathogen interaction in a responsive fashion, these nanoparticles minimize drug exposure and therefore reduce resistance development. For responsive antibiotic release, polymeric nanoparticles have been made with cross-linkers prone to enzymatic degradation. For example, a nanogel formulation containing polyphosphoester cross-linked cores was stable, but degraded in response to the active phosphatase or phospholipase produced by MRSA bacteria, resulting in lesion site-specific drug release and bacterial growth inhibition. Nanoparticles made with a polyethylene glycol (PEG) backbone were designed to undergo side chain cleavage and microstructural transformation in response to enzymes including penicillin G amidase and β-lactamase responsible for degrading antibiotic molecules for resistance . The formulation showed strain-selective delivery of antibiotics to MRSA in vitro and enhanced wound healing in an in vivo murine model. Additionally, liposomes were designed with the attachment of small charged nanoparticles onto liposome surfaces for triggered antimicrobial release. In this design, charged nanoparticles were adsorbed nonspecifically onto phospholipid bilayer surfaces and subsequently provided steric repulsion and reduced surface tension for stabilization. Cationic liposomes adsorbed with negatively charged gold nanoparticles only showed fusion activity toward bacteria at an acidic PH. Such acid-triggered antimicrobial activity made them suitable against various skin pathogens such as P. acne and S. aureus that thrive in an acidic environment.
Nano cellulose can be an appropriate choice as an antimicrobial agent against microbes. This material is due to its adaptability and excellent properties, such as having a high specific surface area, being biodegradable, renewable, the possibility of surface function and having high mechanical strength, it has attracted enormous interest. Recently, advances in nanotechnology, particularly the development of nanoparticles for drug delivery, have generated significant impact in medicine and healthcare.
Nanoparticle delivery systems enhance drug solubility, offer stealth for immune evasion, modulate drug release characteristics, target drug molecules to desired sites, and deliver multiple drugs simultaneously. Due to these unique advantages, they are able to improve the pharmacokinetic profile and therapeutic index of drug payloads when compared with free drug counterparts. A number of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have been approved for clinical use including the treatment of infections. Meanwhile, antimicrobial nanoparticle formulations are increasingly investigated and many are under various stages of pre-clinical and clinical tests. According to reports, nanocellulose is one of the most effective materials that can filter several microbes. Nanocellulose alone cannot protect humans from infection because it is not an antimicrobial agent, but nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials can be made effective against infection through surface modification with antimicrobial agents. This allows nanocellulose to have various functional groups, including aldehyde and quaternary ammonium groups, which give them bacteriostatic and biocompatible properties. Use of other cell composition agents for antimicrobial properties, including metal/metal oxide nanoparticles such as gold (Au), silver(Ag), copper(Cu), Copper(II) oxide(CuO), Magnesium oxide(MgO), Zinc oxide(ZnO) and Titanium dioxide (TiO2), chitosan, silanes and chlorinase have been reported.  In recent years, antimicrobial materials based on nanocellulose have attracted many applications in various fields of industry. The total number of publications shows the increasing trend of studies in the field of nanocelluloses as antibacterial agents over the past years. In this study, we prepared cellulose-graphene nanocomposite from low-cost sources and investigated its antibacterial activity against human pathogenic bacteria. Structure of Cellulose-graphene w:as char:acterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In the second step, to determination of   antibacterial activity of the synthesized nanocomposite, we used well diffusion and agar dilution methods and we compared the antibacterial activity of graphene cellulose nanocomposite with silver nitrate nanoparticles. The results showed that the cellulose-graphene nanocomposite had good antibacterial activity tested bacterial strains and in all cases the activity of the cellulose-graphene nanocomposite was greater than silver nitrate.
     
Type of Study: Research | Subject: Biology

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