Volume 30, Issue 7 (10-2023)
RJMS 2023, 30(7): 1-13 |
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Research code: مقاله مروری
Clinical trials code: مقاله مروری
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Ghalavand A, Behzadinejad H, Ghaderi M, Bari A, Sadegh Jhola M, Rahmani Ghobadi M. The Role of Macronutrients in the Nutrition of Elite Soccer Players: A Systematic Review. RJMS 2023; 30 (7) :1-13
URL: http://rjms.iums.ac.ir/article-1-7813-en.html
URL: http://rjms.iums.ac.ir/article-1-7813-en.html
Akbar Ghalavand 
, Hafez Behzadinejad , Mahbanou Ghaderi , Ashkan Bari , Maryam Sadegh Jhola , Marya Rahmani Ghobadi
, Hafez Behzadinejad , Mahbanou Ghaderi , Ashkan Bari , Maryam Sadegh Jhola , Marya Rahmani Ghobadi
Asistant Professor in Exercise Physiology, Deportment of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Damavand Branch, Islamic Azad University, Damavand, Iran , dr.rahmanighobadi@gmail.com
Abstract: (657 Views)
Background & Aims: Football is one of the ball sports, and as one of the most important sports events in the world, it brings together huge masses of people in stadiums and in front of television (1, 2). The popularity of the sport raises expectations for players (3). The nutrition of football players is an important issue, and its knowledge may help to increase the quality of this popular game by improving physical performance and improving body recovery, and prevent possible health problems and injuries in players (1). Considering the importance of nutrition in soccer and considering the importance of macronutrients in providing energy to soccer players, the purpose of this research was to review the role of macronutrients in elite soccer players.
Methods: In the present review study, which is a type of systematic review studies, by searching the key words of football, nutrition, macronutrients, carbohydrates, protein and fat, the studies obtained from Google Scholar, PubMed and Scopus sites in the years 2017 to 2023 were searched and the studies that were conducted to investigate the effect of macronutrients on the physical performance of soccer players were compiled. The articles collected in this review were searched and reviewed by the authors independently, and the selected articles that met the inclusion criteria were selected and included in the study. Inclusion criteria included the specific relationship of macronutrients (carbohydrate, fat and protein) in sports and studies on adult professional soccer players. The articles were screened based on PRISMA. In the first step, repeated studies were excluded. In the next step, the title and abstract of the articles were done by the first two authors and the responsible author based on the entry and exit conditions, and irrelevant articles were removed. In the next step, the selected articles were reviewed by the authors.
Results: Sufficient energy supply is very important to provide energy in intense and periodic activity during training sessions or football matches (1, 14). The average energy consumption of elite soccer players is estimated to be approximately 3566 kcal in a seven-day period (5 days of training and 2 matches) (15). Adequate consumption of macronutrients makes it possible to achieve the appropriate energy value of the diet (16, 17). Adequate consumption of protein, carbohydrates and fat leads to an adequate energy value of the diet. In addition, macronutrients play a special role in an athlete's body, and therefore, their adequate consumption is closely related to maximizing physical fitness and chances of success in sports competitions (17). Energy availability for athletes for optimal performance should be higher than 40 kcal/kg (at free mass (FFM) and not less than 30 kcal/kg FFM (24). Low energy availability is an important risk factor for health complications such as weakened immune system, decreased bone density, increased fracture risk, hormonal imbalance, fatigue and depression. At the same time, low energy intake may impair performance (25). In addition to total energy consumption, physical performance is also strongly influenced by the appropriate ratio between macronutrient intake. Carbohydrate oxidation, particularly from muscle glycogen, predominates at higher exercise intensities, whereas fat oxidation is more important at lower intensities (13). Due to the limitation of carbohydrate reserves in the body, the depletion of liver and muscle glycogen with intense exercise for a long time is a determining factor in sports performance (26). Adequate glycogen content plays a major role in athletic performance. The bioenergetic systems of this football are quite comprehensive and include high oxidative capacity, high glycolytic capacity, as well as high dependence on ATP and phosphocreatine resynthesis pathways (1). It has been reported that soccer led to a significant decrease in glycogen in both fiber types, which may explain fatigue at the end of a match (30). This reduction of glycogen is due to the consumption of glycogen as the main substrate in high intensity exercises. A high carbohydrate intake of 10 g/kg body weight per day in the 36 hours prior to a game has been recommended for elite soccer players to supply muscle glycogen based on the weight of soccer players. In addition, professional soccer players should consume 1 to 1.5 g/kg of body weight within the first 4 hours after a soccer game to maximize glycogen regeneration (6). Carbohydrate feeding during exercise is likely to improve performance elements on the day of the competition if fed at the rate of 30 to 60 grams per hour; Taking into account the duration of the warm-up (eg, 20-30 minutes) and the game itself (eg, 90-95 minutes), this amount corresponds to an absolute carbohydrate dose of 60-120 grams per game (6, 33). It can be done by consuming carbohydrates at the beginning (20-30 grams) and at the end of the warm-up period (20-30 grams), between the two halves of rest (20-40 grams; as an opportunity to consume a higher dose of carbohydrates due to the increased time spent in the mode fixed) and if possible, benefit from the second half (20-30 grams) (34). The general consensus is that consuming 1.2 g/kg/h of carbohydrates with a high glycemic index for 3 to 4 hours is optimal to facilitate short-term glycogen resynthesis (35). According to the period of time required for the complete completion of reduced muscle glycogen after a competition or heavy training in the range of 24 to 72 hours, it is in the range of 6 to 9 g/kg of football players' weight (6). In general, it is recommended that athletes consume a moderate amount of fat (approximately 30% of their daily caloric intake) (4). Recommendations indicate that the daily consumption of fat in the diet should be between 0.5 and 1 gram per kilogram of body mass per day and represent 20% of daily calories (40). However, it is recommended that athletes do not consume less than 20% of their dietary energy value in the form of fat for long periods of time, as this may lead to reduced intake of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids (41). Consumption of saturated fatty acids should also be taken into account and should not exceed 10% of daily energy intake. In many studies, excessive consumption of saturated fatty acids has been linked to negative health effects, from which even athletes are not immune (25). Protein intake should be optimized in all athletes to increase the efficiency of skeletal muscle's adaptive response to exercise to maximize performance capacity. Most studies evaluating dietary protein requirements have been conducted in men and have mostly involved resistance exercise. Protein requirements in athletes have been investigated mainly by nitrogen balance methodology or by measuring the increase or decrease in muscle mass during dietary interventions (44). According to the statement of the UEFA expert group, to increase adaptation to training, support recovery and stimulate muscle protein synthesis, the recommended protein intake is 1.6-2.2 g/kg body mass per day (23).
Conclusion: According to the current review, it can be said that a significant number of professional soccer players have problems in providing energy balance and receiving the recommended carbohydrates and proteins. The nutrition of male and female soccer players does not meet their energy needs, and on the other hand, in most researches, the share of carbohydrates as a basic substrate in soccer is lower than the recommended values, which can have negative effects on their sports performance. Accordingly, it is necessary to add training programs on nutrition habits and adjust nutrition strategies to individual needs to increase the sports performance of soccer players.
Methods: In the present review study, which is a type of systematic review studies, by searching the key words of football, nutrition, macronutrients, carbohydrates, protein and fat, the studies obtained from Google Scholar, PubMed and Scopus sites in the years 2017 to 2023 were searched and the studies that were conducted to investigate the effect of macronutrients on the physical performance of soccer players were compiled. The articles collected in this review were searched and reviewed by the authors independently, and the selected articles that met the inclusion criteria were selected and included in the study. Inclusion criteria included the specific relationship of macronutrients (carbohydrate, fat and protein) in sports and studies on adult professional soccer players. The articles were screened based on PRISMA. In the first step, repeated studies were excluded. In the next step, the title and abstract of the articles were done by the first two authors and the responsible author based on the entry and exit conditions, and irrelevant articles were removed. In the next step, the selected articles were reviewed by the authors.
Results: Sufficient energy supply is very important to provide energy in intense and periodic activity during training sessions or football matches (1, 14). The average energy consumption of elite soccer players is estimated to be approximately 3566 kcal in a seven-day period (5 days of training and 2 matches) (15). Adequate consumption of macronutrients makes it possible to achieve the appropriate energy value of the diet (16, 17). Adequate consumption of protein, carbohydrates and fat leads to an adequate energy value of the diet. In addition, macronutrients play a special role in an athlete's body, and therefore, their adequate consumption is closely related to maximizing physical fitness and chances of success in sports competitions (17). Energy availability for athletes for optimal performance should be higher than 40 kcal/kg (at free mass (FFM) and not less than 30 kcal/kg FFM (24). Low energy availability is an important risk factor for health complications such as weakened immune system, decreased bone density, increased fracture risk, hormonal imbalance, fatigue and depression. At the same time, low energy intake may impair performance (25). In addition to total energy consumption, physical performance is also strongly influenced by the appropriate ratio between macronutrient intake. Carbohydrate oxidation, particularly from muscle glycogen, predominates at higher exercise intensities, whereas fat oxidation is more important at lower intensities (13). Due to the limitation of carbohydrate reserves in the body, the depletion of liver and muscle glycogen with intense exercise for a long time is a determining factor in sports performance (26). Adequate glycogen content plays a major role in athletic performance. The bioenergetic systems of this football are quite comprehensive and include high oxidative capacity, high glycolytic capacity, as well as high dependence on ATP and phosphocreatine resynthesis pathways (1). It has been reported that soccer led to a significant decrease in glycogen in both fiber types, which may explain fatigue at the end of a match (30). This reduction of glycogen is due to the consumption of glycogen as the main substrate in high intensity exercises. A high carbohydrate intake of 10 g/kg body weight per day in the 36 hours prior to a game has been recommended for elite soccer players to supply muscle glycogen based on the weight of soccer players. In addition, professional soccer players should consume 1 to 1.5 g/kg of body weight within the first 4 hours after a soccer game to maximize glycogen regeneration (6). Carbohydrate feeding during exercise is likely to improve performance elements on the day of the competition if fed at the rate of 30 to 60 grams per hour; Taking into account the duration of the warm-up (eg, 20-30 minutes) and the game itself (eg, 90-95 minutes), this amount corresponds to an absolute carbohydrate dose of 60-120 grams per game (6, 33). It can be done by consuming carbohydrates at the beginning (20-30 grams) and at the end of the warm-up period (20-30 grams), between the two halves of rest (20-40 grams; as an opportunity to consume a higher dose of carbohydrates due to the increased time spent in the mode fixed) and if possible, benefit from the second half (20-30 grams) (34). The general consensus is that consuming 1.2 g/kg/h of carbohydrates with a high glycemic index for 3 to 4 hours is optimal to facilitate short-term glycogen resynthesis (35). According to the period of time required for the complete completion of reduced muscle glycogen after a competition or heavy training in the range of 24 to 72 hours, it is in the range of 6 to 9 g/kg of football players' weight (6). In general, it is recommended that athletes consume a moderate amount of fat (approximately 30% of their daily caloric intake) (4). Recommendations indicate that the daily consumption of fat in the diet should be between 0.5 and 1 gram per kilogram of body mass per day and represent 20% of daily calories (40). However, it is recommended that athletes do not consume less than 20% of their dietary energy value in the form of fat for long periods of time, as this may lead to reduced intake of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids (41). Consumption of saturated fatty acids should also be taken into account and should not exceed 10% of daily energy intake. In many studies, excessive consumption of saturated fatty acids has been linked to negative health effects, from which even athletes are not immune (25). Protein intake should be optimized in all athletes to increase the efficiency of skeletal muscle's adaptive response to exercise to maximize performance capacity. Most studies evaluating dietary protein requirements have been conducted in men and have mostly involved resistance exercise. Protein requirements in athletes have been investigated mainly by nitrogen balance methodology or by measuring the increase or decrease in muscle mass during dietary interventions (44). According to the statement of the UEFA expert group, to increase adaptation to training, support recovery and stimulate muscle protein synthesis, the recommended protein intake is 1.6-2.2 g/kg body mass per day (23).
Conclusion: According to the current review, it can be said that a significant number of professional soccer players have problems in providing energy balance and receiving the recommended carbohydrates and proteins. The nutrition of male and female soccer players does not meet their energy needs, and on the other hand, in most researches, the share of carbohydrates as a basic substrate in soccer is lower than the recommended values, which can have negative effects on their sports performance. Accordingly, it is necessary to add training programs on nutrition habits and adjust nutrition strategies to individual needs to increase the sports performance of soccer players.
Type of Study: review article |
Subject:
Exercise Physiology
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